Fundamental Teaching Tools of Behavior Reinforcement by;Brian E. Mac Farlane MA.Ed.

PRT, like all other behavioral teaching approaches (and probably non-behavioral teaching approaches as well), uses the fundamental teaching tools of reinforcement, antecedent control, prompting,fading, shaping, and chaining. PRT uses both motivational and learning principles and applies them systematically in natural settings to optimize the development of fundamental skills that are pivotal to the development of a wide range of other skills.

PRT is a technique that a wide range of individuals can use, including family members and school staff, as well as individual therapists and consultants (e.g., speech-language pathologists, occupational therapists).

One primary goal of PRT is to promote generalization and maintenanceof mastered skills. A successful strategy for addressing this goal is to focus on skill deficits in the natural environment, in as many naturally occurring opportunities as possible, and with multiple intervention partners (National Research Council, 2001). For example, it is much more likely that learners will maintain newly acquired skills, such as buttoning, and generalize to different types of buttons if they button pajamas at night, coats when going outside, or a doll's dress during play-all naturally occurring opportunities that take place throughout the daily routine.

PRT can be implemented in any setting and context where (a) the learner has consistent contact with an individual and (b) there are activities or objects that the learner prefers

Pivotal Behaviors

Thepivotal behaviors that have led to significant gains in skill development and in collateral functioning are (a) motivation, (b) responding to multiple cues, (c) self-management, and (d) self-initiation (Baker-Ericzen et al., 2010; Nefdt, 2010).

Motivation to respond to social and environmental cuesis fundamental to development and a critical area of intervention. Learners with ASD may appear poorly motivated to respond to and engage in the social world around them (Jones, Carr, & Feeley, 2006).

Many learners with ASD can enhance their attention to multiple cues and increase their abilities to learn and generalize if this deficit is targeted (Brown & Bebco, 2012; Reed, 2012).

Self-management is a positive behavior support strategy that decreases interfering behaviors(e.g., repetitive, disruptive, stereotypical) while more functional replacement behaviors are being learned. Development of self-management techniques has been shown to improve academic performance (Palmen, Didden, & Arts, 2008), and play skills (Barry & Singer, 2001).

Studies have demonstrated that initiations are pivotal behaviors and that increasing these behaviors yields gains in other areas of language and social development. For example, children who were taught to use the question "What's that?" demonstrated an increase their use of expressive labels and generalize their question-asking to the home (L. K. Koegel, Camarata, Valdez-Menchaca, & Koegel, 1998). Researchers also have found that, when children were taught the question, "What's happening?" they exhibited other general language gains, including an increase in the average number of words spoken per sentence (L. K. Koegel, Carter, & Koegel, 2003).

Teaching Key Pivotal Behaviors: Procedures for Implementation

The aim of PRT is to change learners' behaviors to allow for a more typical trajectory of development in the most inclusive settings possible. In the sections that follow, specific procedures are provided to address each key pivotal behavior: motivation, responses to multiple cues, self-management, and self-initiation. Ideally, these procedures should be incorporated into general curricula instead of creating a separate curriculum for learners with ASD (R. L. Koegel & Koegel, 2006).

Case study conclusions:

Preschool

Once Devondre showed more enthusiasm to participate, he also became interested in other songs, topics, and books introduced during circle time. Expanding his interests was further facilitated by continuing to preview the new materials or information with him at home the day or two before being introduced during circle time. Overall, these strategies allowed circle time to become more pleasurable and rewarding to Devondre. In addition, familiarizing Devondre with routines during circle time enabled him to become a more active and competent participant.

Elementary

In summary, applying these intervention strategies helped students develop confidence and motivation to improve their academic achievement within an inclusive environment. Offering choices, simplifying and modifying tasks, reinforcing attempts, and providing natural and contingent reinforcement are beneficial procedures for motivating students with autism to make more rapid academic gains

HS.

As a result of the social skills program, students are able to initiate conversations and respond appropriately in social interactions with others. Parents also reported that children began to show more interest in their son's appearance by shaving, showering, and wearing different clothes.Moreover, some students become more confident engaging in reciprocal and empathetic conversations with selected peers. They also become more effective conversationalist and can begin developing friendships.

Summary

PRT strategies have strong empirical support for use in facilitating communication and social skills, but empirical support for use in school programs is still being acquired (Harrower & Dunlap, 2001; King-Sears & Cummings, 1996). With the significant acceleration of the rate of diagnosis of ASD in children and youth, school districts and other service providers are increasingly challenged to provide interventions to learners with ASD that are both effective and efficient. Utilizing the techniques in this module in close collaboration with learners' parents and other professionals will contribute to successful implementation of this intervention in different settings.

The PIvital Response Treatment: Part 1 by Brian E. Mac Farlane, MA.Ed.

PRT is an intervention or treatment approach derived from the principles of applied behavior analysis (ABA; R. L. Koegel, Openden, Fredeen, & Koegel, 2006). PRT focuses on building a set of four "pivotal" skills or behaviors, including (a) motivation to respond to natural environmental and social cues, (b) responding to multiple (rather than single) cues in the environment, (c) management of own behavior, and (d) self-initiation of behavior in appropriate contexts.

 These are called pivotal behaviors because they are likely to have a positive effect on the learner's acquisition and use of a wider range of developmental or behavior skills than those specifically targeted for the PRT intervention (Coolican, Smith & Bryson, 2010; Smith, Koegel, Koegel, Openden, Fossum, & Bryson, 2010).

 

The 10 core goals of PRT are to:

·         Teach learners to respond to the many learning opportunities and social interactions that occur in the natural environment

·         Decrease learners' needs for constant supervision and support from adults

·         Promote family involvement and improve the quality of life for all family members

·         Decrease the number of services delivered in separate settings that remove learners from the natural environment

·         Improve learners' academic performance

·         Advance learners' communication and language skills

·         Foster learners' social interactions and friendships with typically developing peers

·         Reduce learners' interfering behaviors (e.g., disruptive, repetitive, stereotypical)

·         Move learners toward a typical developmental trajectory by teaching a diverse number of behaviors

·         Broaden learners' interests

 

This approach gives the learner opportunities to make choices and share control of the interactions with adults. The teaching that follows these interactions enhances learners' motivation to engage with objects and activities that maximize the reward strength (i.e., the intrinsic motivating power of the activity or object) and minimize the need for extrinsic reinforcers (e.g., stickers, tokens, edibles).

Why developed?

PRT was developed by Robert Koegel and Laura Schreibman, who arranged teaching settings in which children were allowed to choose materials and activities while adults interspersed teaching opportunities within learning and play activities. Children in these settings learned new skills and maintained those skills over time (Schreibman, 2006). PRT, like all other behavioral teaching approaches (and probably non-behavioral teaching approaches as well), uses the fundamental teaching tools of reinforcement, antecedent control, prompting, fading, shaping, and chaining

The first behavioral interventions for children and youth with ASD successfully used the basic behavioral principles of reinforcement, punishment, and shaping to teach target behaviors such as speech, imitation, following instructions, and reduction of unwanted behaviors (Ferster, 1961; Ferster & DeMyer, 1962).

PRT, like all other behavioral teaching approaches (and probably non-behavioral teaching approaches as well), uses the fundamental teaching tools of reinforcement, antecedent control, prompting, fading, shaping, and chaining. PRT uses both motivational and learning principles and applies them systematically in natural settings to optimize the development of fundamental skills that are pivotal to the development of a wide range of other skills.

PRT is a technique that a wide range of individuals can use, including family members and school staff, as well as individual therapists and consultants (e.g., speech-language pathologists, occupational therapists).

One primary goal of PRT is to promote generalization and maintenance of mastered skills. A successful strategy for addressing this goal is to focus on skill deficits in the natural environment, in as many naturally occurring opportunities as possible, and with multiple intervention partners (National Research Council, 2001). For example, it is much more likely that learners will maintain newly acquired skills, such as buttoning, and generalize to different types of buttons if they button pajamas at night, coats when going outside, or a doll's dress during play-all naturally occurring opportunities that take place throughout the daily routine.

PRT can be implemented in any setting and context where (a) the learner has consistent contact with an individual and (b) there are activities or objects that the learner prefers

transferring files from old PC to new PC

Defining The Types of Epilepsy by: Brian E. Mac Farlane, MA.Ed.

Epilepsy  Seizures Types:

·        Absence (petit mal)--This type of seizure is most common in children. It is characterized by a blank stare lasting about half a minute; the person appears to be daydreaming. During this type of seizure, the individual is unaware of his or her surroundings.

·        Atonic (drop attack)--A childhood seizure in which the child loses consciousness for about ten seconds and usually falls to the ground because of a complete loss of muscle tone.

·        Complex partial (temporal lobe)--A blank stare, random activity, and a chewing motion are characteristic of this type of seizure. The person may be dazed and unaware of his or her surroundings, and may act oddly. There is no memory of this seizure. A person may experience a distinctive warning sign called an aura before this type of seizure. The aura is itself a form of partial seizure, but one in which the person retains awareness. The aura may be experienced as a peculiar odor, "butterflies" in the stomach, or a sound. One man with epilepsy, an ardent racetrack gambler, said he would always hear the roar of a crowd, followed by the name of a favorite racehorse, just before he lost consciousness.

Indoctrination in Common Core ELA Texts

Functional Behavior Plan FBA Essentials , by Brian E. Macfarlane, MA.Ed

Brian Mac Farlane, MA.Ed

Functional Behavior Plan FBA Essentials

ABC data collection uses basic observations and forms to collect data on a specific behavior, as well as the related antecedent and consequence. That information is essential to conducting a functional behavior assessment in order to analyze behavior and determine consequences. Behavior in children can be better managed and more effectively changed when the interventions are based on a functional analysis of ABC data.

ABC Data Collection Forms

Data collection forms do not have to be complicated. They can be written in any format as long as they allow for all of the needed information. The required information on the form should include the name of the person being observed, the date and time of day, and a good setting description. Additionally, observed behaviors, what was happening right before they occurred, and the response or consequence of the behavior should be noted.

Many data collection forms for ABC data only have three columns. The columns are for the antecedent, the behavior, and the consequence. However, it is also important to note the time of the behavioral occurrences, their intensity (especially if they involve an emotional response), the duration, and possibly a place to tally the frequency of specific behaviors.

Antecedents of Behavior

Behaviors always have a trigger. That trigger could be to escape an unpleasant situation or to gain recognition or acceptance. Behaviors could also be triggered by the desire to fulfill a physical need. Other behaviors could be the result of a deficit in a particular skill area. It is important to note details about what was happening right before the behavior occurred, the antecedent, in order to determine the true trigger for the behavior.

Many antecedents are not observable. For example, things like physical ailments, embarrassment or not understanding what to do can all result in a behavioral response. Sometimes, the ABC data collection may need to include getting information from the individual being observed. Of course, they should not know they are being observed so any questioning should be done after the fact or by someone else.

Describing Behaviors

Behaviors should always be specifically described in objective terms. Vague descriptions should be avoided. Additionally, any subjective evaluation of the behavior should be avoided. For example, if a child would not comply with a request, the behavioral description should avoid references to defiance or attitude. However, a good description might be that a student was seated and did not appear to do anything or that a child said “no” or walked away and did not comply.

A lack of a behavior, or not doing anything when a behavior is required, is still a behavior. Teachers sometimes say that a student does not have any concerning behaviors, only to find out that he is failing that class because he refuses to do anything. Behaviors that can be a concern are not limited to disruptive behaviors. It is also important to note any lack of needed behavior.

Describing the Consequences of Behavior

Consequences include any response or result the behavior achieved for the child. For example, the same single behavior occurrence might get a child attention from the teacher and peers, as well as getting him out of doing work. Additionally, it could result in a poor grade. All consequences should be noted.

It is important not to ignore any consequence because consequences often serve to promote that same behavior happening again. For example, it might seem obvious that a poor grade was not what a student wanted and so it could not possible be reinforcing. However, it is not unheard of for students to set themselves up for failure due to things like not being emotionally prepared for life after graduation. Never discount a consequence as not being important.

Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence Data Collection

Taking good data on the antecedent, the behavior, and the consequences, can provide the essential information for a good functional analysis of behavior. It is the basis for ultimately determining interventions, supports, and consequences that will change inappropriate behaviors into desired behaviors. ABC data collection can make a teacher’s and a parent’s job much easier.

References:

Alberto, Paul & Troutman, Anne. Applied Behavior Analysis for Teachers, Eighth Edition. Ohio: Prentice Hall, 2008.

 

Summary on Education: How to Gain Application of Mastery and Progress Mo...

Summary on Education: How to Gain Application of Mastery and Progress Mo...: Application of Mastery and Progress Monitoring with a Specific Student By: B rian E. Mac Farlane, MA.Ed ...

How to Use CBM When Teaching Multiplication Fact Families (e.g., times tables for 2, 3, 4)

How To Use CBM When Teaching Multiplication Fact Families (e.g., times tables for 2, 3, 4)

By Brian E. Mac Farlane, MA.Ed

Step 1: The CBM steps begin by creating or selecting an appropriate multiplication fact family probes (test) for the student's grade and skill level. However, I teach a scripted math program that does not have a specific probe for multiplication. Therefore, my probe would be an assessment created by another publisher consisting of 100 problems multiplication problems for multiplication fact families. 

Step 2: Next, I would administer and score student math probes at regular intervals (weekly, bi-weekly, or monthly). The weekly probes would consist of ten multiplication problems in which students would have one minute to complete.  The assessment score would be calculated by dividing the total correct answers by the total number of problem. This calculation will give me a probe score in the form of percentage correct.

Step 3:Then, I would use a line graph to graph the student’s weekly probe percentage scores. This is an important step in the CBM process because, it symbolize a visual representation of the student’s progress towards goals.

Step 4: My next step would entail establishing student academic math goals. This step is important to indicate the expected level of proficiency that students will demonstrate by the end of the school year and the amount of growth expected in shorter periods of time (e.g., weekly goals).

Step 5: After an analysis of the student progress data, I would make any necessary instructional decisions. For example, I could provide practice of multiplication facts using a computer software program that give immediate feedback to the student.

Step 6: Feedback given as part of formative assessment helps learners become aware of any gaps that exist between their desired goal and their current knowledge, understanding, or skill and guides them through actions necessary to obtain the goal (Ramaprasad, 1983; Sadler, 1989). Communicating student progress is a fundamental component of the CBM process. So, I would meet individually with my student to review their goals, and talk about their progress by utilizing the probe data results and graphs. I would also communicate the student progress to parents, and other educational professionals by providing them student data (copies of probes and or graphs). This communication process would be ongoing throughout the school year.

Advantages of progress monitoring over annual achievement tests

Advantages of progress monitoring over annual achievement tests
By Brian E. Mac Farlane, MA.Ed

The first advantage of using progress monitoring over annual monitoring is how it allows teachers to estimate the student rates of improvement verses rates of growth. Therefore, when teachers use progress monitoring it provides vital feedback on the skills currently being taught verses all the skills of a particular unit of study. A second advantage of progress monitoring over an annual achievement test is how it identifies students who are not making satisfactory progress and who need additional or alterative instruction. Finally, the third advantage of progress monitoring over annual achievement test is how it evaluates the effectiveness of instruction so that teachers can create better instructional programs.

Key differences between mastery measurement and CBM Mastery : 

Measurement corresponds to a precise point on the CBM yearlong continuum, so it provides student assessment data related to a specific lesson plan objective. Similarly, a Mastery Measurement Assessment is a based on a pre-planned instructional sequence for the year, but CBM skills can be taught in any logical order.

There are three common ways CBM can be used to help high-risk students:

1.     CBM can help identify those skills in which students may have the greatest challenge.

2.     CBM can support the process of identifying those students who are not making progress in a general education setting.

3.     CBM can track the student progress towards their IEP goals

Six Steps CBM Process

Step 1: Create or select appropriate tests (called probes) for the student's grade and skill level.

Step 2: Administer and score probes at regular intervals (weekly, bi-weekly, or monthly).

Step 3: Graph the scores. Graphing is an integral part of using CBM.

Step 4: Set goals. It is crucial to indicate the expected level of proficiency that students will demonstrate by the end of the school year and the amount of growth expected in shorter periods of time (e.g., weekly goals).

Step 5: Make instructional decisions based on CBM data.

Step 6: Communicate the progress by providing students, parents, and other educational professionals with information about student growth throughout the school year.  Step six is accomplished when the teacher use CBM data and graphs to support their communication with students, parents, and other education professionals.

Education Philosophy of Brian E. Mac Farlane, MA.Ed

My philosophy of education is not based on a single theory.  However, the end result of any teaching experience should answer  two fundamental questions;

 1) Did the student acquire new skills and abilities (learning)?

 2) Can the student synthesize learned skills and abilities to acquire new        knowledge (maturation)? 

Therefore, my teaching objective is to create a balanced learning environment for students to learn and mature.  Maintaining equilibrium or balance is a complicated process all teachers strive to achieve inside their classroom. There are several learning theories that teachers can utilize to support a balanced approach towards effective instruction:

Humanistic Learning Theory: The affective well being of the students is the main focus of this approach.

Developmental Learning Theory: Allows each student to progress at their  own pace.

Social Integrationist Learning Theory: Recognizes the role of adults and older children in the learning process.  There is a strong emphasis on modeling and the use of language to facilitate learning.

Cognitive Learning Theory: This theory supports a central belief that people are active learners.  They will focus on various factors like information processing model of learning, discovery learning, learning strategies, and problem solving ( Woolfolk 1996).

Behavioral Learning Theory: Behaviorist believes  that learning is acquired through changes that are observable and measured.

Special consideration must be established to understand the dynamics of behavioral and cognitive learning, motivation and learning, classroom management, and diversity.  In addition, any real examination of a balanced learning environment must also consider multiple intelligence and cognitive development, cultural and language acquisition, and social development. Although a full understanding and application will allow the creation of a balanced learning environment, I consider three primary topic areas to be essential within my classroom. The three essential topics are motivation and learning, intelligence and cognitive development and assessment/evaluation.

Motivation and learning are important, because every student is not self-motivated or live in a positive environment.  In addition, students learn at various levels, and this unique difference represents an important dynamic when creating and teaching a lesson.  It would be nice to have a one size fits all, but student’s differences are a fundamental challenge facing all teachers.  Assessment and performance is a responsibility all teachers share.  Therefore, I employ a host of formative and summative assessments, ranging from scholastic tests, readiness tests, observations, periodic quizzes, portfolios and student conferences.

Moving forward, the question of balance is relative, and consequently a central topic of debate among educators.  Therefore, I always recognize a host of theories that support my balanced approach to teaching.  In addition, a full understanding of teaching theories coupled with strategic application of multiple teaching strategies will foster  a balanced learning environment. So, at the end of the day, I’ll be  able to answer the question; Did my students learn, and are they academically mature to make a difference?

How the Common Core is Changing Assessment

Common Core Curriculum - A Trojan Horse for Education Reform

PALS Strategy Critique and Possible Use inside a Public School, by Brian Mac Farlane, MA.Ed

A Reading Strategy for Grades 2–6

1.       List five benefits of PALS.

1.       Allows all students—those with and without learning difficulties—to be actively involved in peer-mediated sessions

2.       Makes it possible for students with disabilities to spend more time in the least restrictive environment, thus increasing their access to the general education curriculum

3.       Can be used as a research-validated reading approach in schools implementing response to intervention

4. Motivates students
5. Promotes collaboration and positive social interactions among students

2.       Name the three reading activities for PALS (Grades 2–6) and describe the reading skills targeted by each.

Partner Reading with Retell, Paragraph Shrinking, and Prediction Relay are three reading activities for PALS grades 2-6.

3.       Describe a typical  PALS session. Be sure to discuss the roles of  both the students and the teacher.

Paragraph Shrinking, is designed to improve comprehension. Mrs. Nash learns that this activity will help students to: monitor their own comprehension and focus on the main idea of each paragraph, pay attention to important details, and elaborate on the content. There are four  lesson steps;

Step 1. The higher-performing student reads for five minutes, beginning where the second reader left off in Partner Reading and stopping at the end of each paragraph.

Step 2. At the end of each paragraph, the higher-performing reader identifies the main character (i.e., the who or what) and summarizes the main idea in 10 words or fewer.

Step 3. After switching roles, the lower-performing student picks up where the higher-performing reader left off in the text, reading for five minutes and stopping at the end of each paragraph.

Step 4. At the end of each paragraph, the lower-performing reader identifies the main character (i.e., the who or what) and summarizes the main idea in 10 words or fewer.

The Coach monitors and provides immediate and corrective feedback when his or her partner commits an errors: For example, the partner may incorrectly summarizing the paragraph or they could attempt to summarize using more than 10 words. This lesson is time efficient as it takes only ten minuets, so the teacher can add it into the daily schedule with minimal loss of required instructional mandates ( math, ELD or  computer based learning).

4.       Imagine that you are Ms. McVee, a sixth-grade teacher implementing PALS with a class of 29 students. Choose one of the two methods discussed in this module for moving students for partner reading. Explain why you chose this option.

I would select option one which argues since students are partnered for a three- to four-week period, the teacher can create a new seating arrangement—one in which partners are seated next to one another—each time new partners are assigned. Doing so will eliminate the need for students to move around the classroom to join their reading partners. Similarly, I selected this strategy because it  fosters relationship building, reduced transition time, and minimize the amount of time my students are engaged in a non-academic activity.

5.       Again, imagine that you are Ms. McVee. Of your 29 students, three are absent. As a result, three students are without their regular partners. How would you ensure that each student could participate in your regularly scheduled PALS session?

I would consider the below four strategies to ensure that all students can engage in a reading activity even in the event that one or more students are not present.

ü  A higher-performing reader might read independently for the session. (For obvious reasons, this should be done sparingly, if at all possible.)

ü  The student might join another pair of students to form a triad. Each student will serve as the Coach for one of the three reading activities.

ü  If the partners of two students are absent, those students can be paired for the session. As always, the pairs will read from the lower-performing readers’ book.

ü  Although less likely, a student from another classroom who is engaged in PALS and does not have a partner for the day might join the class for the session.

PALS  Strategy Critique and Possible Use

PALS (Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies)  is characterized as a peer-tutoring program teachers can utilized  within school classrooms ( K through 12) to improve student proficiency in reading. Its core purpose is not intended to replace but supplement students’ existing reading curriculum. Moreover, PALS  was created for students with diverse academic needs as well as English language learners. PALS benefits students because it creates an active involvement through  in peer-mediated sessions. Students with disabilities benefit because PALS increase their access to the general education curriculum by increasing the time spent  in the least restrictive environment. Finally, PALS represent a research-validated reading approach for teachers who implement RTI.  Partner Reading with Retell, Paragraph Shrinking, and Prediction Relay are three reading activities for PALS grades 2-6. In addition to being trained in each of the reading strategies, students are taught to correct their partner’s reading errors, award points for correct responses, and provide consistent encouragement and feedback. Developers recommend that tutoring sessions last approximately 10-35 minutes and be conducted three to four times a week. 

PALS  can be utilized at any school site as it permits the  integration of  more strategic instruction during my RTI rotations as well as  small tutoring sessions.  Partner Reading with Retell, Paragraph Shrinking, and Prediction Relay are three reading activities can  allow teachers to  meet the individual needs of my  IEP and RTI level three students.  Similarly these  PAL reading strategies  utilizes the fundamental ability differences of  each student  within a  classroom setting.  Therefore, PALS will  eliminate the need  to consider “Push In”  because all the students are serviced  in one classroom but work on different levels.

Video Monitoring Basics for Special Education Teachers

By Brian Mac Farlane, MA.Ed

BMF Consulting Group

Literature Review:

All the research studies I reviewed were determined to meet the NPDC of ASD’s criteria as an evidence-based practice. My review studies covered the domains of communication, social, academic/cognition, and play, and functional skills were  represented . These studies actually serve as the foundation for the evidence base research in which video modeling was implemented in home and school settings. So, the evidence-based research results affirmed how video modeling can be effectively implemented with learners from early childhood , middle school, and even adulthood.  In addition, these research studies  also supported the statistic the Autism is prevalent in males as each study participants gender was male. Methods and practices fell within group as well as single subject research guidelines. The purpose of the  research investigations  can be summarized into an attempt to test the effectiveness of videotaped modeling as a means of  promoting  generalization across social settings.

Dependent and independent variables were well outlined and clear to the reader. Quality indicators for describing participants were sufficient and at times extensive. The interventions were insightful and the data analysis provided an adequate link to key research questions.  I was particularly pleased with how each research team assessed not only the fidelity of implementation but examined the quality of implementation in their  discussions.  In addition they commonly  used  studies used multiple baseline across subject design, established design control, and the results documented  patterns that demonstrated experimental control.  Each research study exhibited social validity in typical physical and social contexts. However, external validity  proved  problematic as experimental affects are difficult to replicate across participants, settings, and materials. For example, the three participants in the Haring, Kennedy, and Adam research, were able to generalize purchasing skills in only three targeted stores, but not across all stores. Although the videotape simulation method seemed to be effective, simulation techniques (especially when used without concurrent training in a natural environment) have shown an inconsistent pattern of effectiveness (Coon, Vogelsberg, & Williams, 1981).

In conclusion, the videotape modeling procedure used in each of the six research studies resulted in increased independent functioning and social responding for the participants. More importantly, the studies  represented a positive addition  to the growing literature on the importance of  utilizing video modeling with children with autism. Video modeling is a promising method for promoting social skills in these children (LeBlanc et al., 2003; Sherer et al.,2001).  However, there is a widely held consensus for further research with videotape modeling. The scope of future research may attempt to identify the effects of  teaching  peer-directed social skills or examine the impact of feedback on the acquisition of  social language skills.  Finally, I agree with Apple, Billingsley, and Swartz  call for further research  investigation to uncover methods that could be employed when video modeling is not successful. Expectantly, this future research might provide educators with possible alternatives to teach compliment giving and other similar and complex social initiations.

Information Brief:

Video modeling is a strategy involving the use of videos to provide modeling of targeted skills (Bellini & Akullian, 2007). There are four types of video modeling (basic video modeling, video self-modeling, point-of-view video modeling, and video prompting).  Basic video modeling involves recording someone besides the learner engaging in the target behavior or skill (i.e., models). The video is then viewed by the learner at a later time. Video self-modeling is used to record the learner displaying the target skill or behavior and is reviewed later. Point-of-view video modeling is when the target behavior or skill is recorded from the perspective of the learner. Video prompting involves breaking the behavior skill into steps and recording each step with incorporated pauses during which the learner may attempt the step before viewing subsequent steps. Video prompting may be done with either the learner or someone else acting as a model. Video modeling can enhance children’s abilities to independently complete unfamiliar or complex directions by condensing the content to only essential information (Williams, Goldstein, & Minshew, 2006).  All four types of video modeling can be effective learning strategies because they allow the student to focus on what is important in mastering targeted behaviors.

            According to current legislation (i.e., No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Individuals With Disabilities Education Act), instructional strategies used in classrooms must be scientifically research-based (Simpson, Myles, & Ganz, 2008). Visually based instruction such as video modeling, a research supported intervention, may be more appropriate and effective than other approaches for students with ASD for a number of reasons (Bellini & Akullian,

2007; Delano, 2007b).  Similarly, video modeling exemplify evidenced – based practice criteria because it methodology abide by the approved criteria of Evidence-based research.  Further, video modeling and contemporary research suggest that video modeling can be effectively implemented with ASD learners from early childhood through middle school.  Additionally, visually based interventions support an ASD students’ ability to shift attention (Quill 1995,1997, 1998), make abstract concepts more concrete (Peeters, 1997), and may be less socially stigmatizing than verbal reminders by adults or companions when in the presence of peers.  Although there are limited  evidence based research to support widespread use at the secondary levels, I would consider utilizing this learning strategy with ASD students at the secondary level who are sensitive to verbal reminders or non – responders  traditional intervention strategies.

Benefits of Video Modeling

• Increase appropriate social interactions                     • Improve conversation skills

• Improve daily living skills                                           • Improve play skills

Steps for Implementation: Ten steps are outlined below which describe how video modeling is implemented with learners with ASD.  

Step 1. Targeting a Behavior: teachers/practitioners focus on identifying a behavior for the learner with ASD to acquire and then clearly describe it so that accurate data can be collected throughout the intervention process to monitor its effectiveness

Step 2. Having the Correct Equipment: practitioners must have access to two basic pieces of equipment to implement video modeling techniques with learners with ASD: (a) something to make the video and (b) something to show the video (Sigafoos et al., 2007).

Step 3. Planning for the Video Recording: Creating a script or task analysis of the skill that is being taught is very important for video modeling. A task analysis is helpful for breaking down a complex skill into a sequence of several behaviors (e.g., all the steps in learning how to make a bed, how to use a microwave oven). It should include a list of all of the steps needed to complete the target behavior (Sigafoos et al., 2007).

Step 4. Collecting Baseline Data : Videos used during the intervention should be determined by baseline data. For example, if the learner already knows the first three steps in shoe tying, only the remaining steps could be included (Sigafoos et al., 2007).

Step 5. Making the Video :  teachers/practitioners make the video that will be used to teach a specific skill during the video modeling intervention.

Step 6. Arranging the Environment for Watching the Video : Teaching should take place in the most natural setting and at times when the target behavior can be used in a functional way (e.g., making a sandwich at lunch time with the video being shown right before). It is important to use the same materials during the intervention as those that are used in the video (Sigafoos et al., 2007).

Step 7. Showing the Video : teachers/practitioners show the video that demonstrates the use of the target behavior to learners with ASD.  

Step 8. Monitoring Progress :  Once the learner is consistently using the target behavior, fade the use of prompting (as appropriate) and the video to promote maintenance of the behavior (Sigafoos et al., 2007).

Step 9. Troubleshooting if the Learner is Not Making Progress  In this step, teachers/practitioners adjust or change tactics to help learners with ASD acquire the target behavior if they are not making adequate progress.

Step 10. Fading the Video and Prompting Scene fading involves gradually removing scenes or parts of the task from the video that the learner has mastered (Sigafoos et al., 2007).

In conclusion, video modeling built its foundation on social learning theory, which emphasizes people can learn by observing and then replicating these actions. Although the steps may seem cumbersome to practitioners, the overall benefits far outweigh the cost in time and materials.  These strategies respond to stimulus over selectivity by assisting students in focusing and maintaining attention to relevant stimuli  (Shipley-Benamou, Lutzker, & Taubman, 2002).  Therefore visually based approaches like video modeling may help address pervasive difficulties in students with ASD.  Unfortunately,  more research is needed as the number of students diagnosed with ASD increases.

 

 

 

Literature Review Sources:

Apple, A., Billingsley, F., & Schwartz, I.(2005). Effects of video modeling alone and with self-management on compliment-giving behaviors of children with high-functioning ASD. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 7, 33-46.

Charlop, M. H., & Milstein, J. P. (1989). Teaching autistic children conversational speech using video modeling. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 22(3), 275-285

Haring, T. G., Kennedy, C. H., Adams, M. J., & Pitts-Conway, V. (1987). Teaching generalization of purchasing skills across community settings to autistic youth using video tape modeling. Journal of Applied Behavior

Analysis, 20, 89-96.

Maione, L., & Mirenda, P. (2006). Effects of video modeling and video feedback on peer-directed social language skills of a child with autism. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 8, 106–118.

 

.Nikopoulos, C. K., & Keenan, M. (2004). Effects of video modeling on social initiations by children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 37(1), 93-96.

Shipley-Benamou, R., Lutzker, J. R., & Taubman, M. (2002). Teaching daily living skills to children with autism through instructional video modeling.  Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 4, 165–175.

 References:

 

Bellini, S., & Akullian, J. (2007). A meta-analysis of video modeling and video

self-modeling interventions for children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Exceptional  Children, 73,264–287.

Coon, M. E., Vogelsberg, R. T., & Williams, W. (1981). Effects of classroom transportation instruction on generalization to the natural environment. Journal of the Association for the Severely Handicapped, 6(2), 46-

53.